Heterotrophic

Abstract. Heterotrophic respiration (Rh) is, at a global scale, one of the largest CO2 fluxes between the earth’s surface and atmosphere and may increase in the future. Yet, the capacity of Earth System Models (ESMs) to reproduce this flux has never been evaluated, causing uncertainty in resulting CO2 flux estimates. In this study, we combine recently released observational data on Rh and ESM simulations to evaluate, for the first time, the ability of 13 ESMs to reproduce Rh. Only four of the 13 tested were able to reproduce the total Rh flux but spatial analysis underlined important bias compensation. We observed that mean annual precipitation was the most important driver explaining the difference between ESM simulations and observation-derived product of Rh with higher bias between ESM simulations and Rh products where precipitation was high. Based on our results, next-generation ESMs should focus on improving the response of Rh to soil moisture. Heterotrophic respiration fluxes are a major flux between surfaces and the atmosphere, but Earth system models do not yet represent them correctly. Here we benchmarked Earth system models against observation based products and we identified the important mechanisms that need to be imporved in the next-generation Earth system models.

Background and aims Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition and changing precipitation regimes have profound effects on ecological processes in terrestrial ecosystems. However, whether N deposition interacts similarly with increased and decreased precipitation to affect microbial-mediated carbon (C) release from soils remains unclear. Methods As part of a four-year (2017–2020) field experiment, this study was conducted to examine the effects of N addition, increased 50% and decreased 50% precipitation on soil heterotrophic respiration in a forest of the subtropical-warm temperate transition in Central China. Soil heterotrophic respiration was detected in situ three times per month. Results Across the four years, N addition decreased soil microbial biomass N by 13.8%, and reduced bacterial proportion in the community by 1.23%. Neither increased nor decreased precipitation affected phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) concentrations of any of microbial groups, but the latter improved Gram-positive to Gram-negative bacteria ratio by 1.94%. The enhancement of soil heterotrophic respiration (28.4%) under increased precipitation could be due to the increased microbial biomass N driven by the elevated water availability. Although either N addition or decreased precipitation did not affect soil heterotrophic respiration, there were interactive effects between them on soil heterotrophic respiration. Changes of soil moisture, C and N availability might be primarily responsible for the non-add...

Paul Mazzola • • • • Heterotroph definition A heterotroph is a living organism that eats other organisms for their energy source. Heterotrophic organisms are consumers in the ecosystem because they cannot manufacture their own food. Examples of heterotrophic organisms are humans, dung beetles, and hyenas. The word “heterotroph” is a combination of two Greek words: • hetero, meaning “other.” • troph, meaning “nourishment” or “feeding.” What is a heterotroph Types of heterotrophs Most biologists name three types of heterotrophs: herbivores (plant eaters), carnivores and omnivores (meat-eaters and eaters of meat and plants), and detritivores (debris eaters). • Herbivores – Plant-eating heterotrophic organisms occupy the second tier of food chains; they feed on organic matter like living plants such as sedges, trees, grasses, flowering plants, and bushes • Carnivores and Omnivores – Carnivores eat meat, meaning they eat other heterotrophs; omnivores eat both plants and meat, and both types of heterotrophs occupy the third level of food chains. • Detritivores – Like herbivores, detritivores occupy the second level of food chains because they feed on decaying organic material such as dead plants and animal matter, and animal feces. You can think of these as the decomposers of an ecosystem. Types of heterotrophs The trophic level of an organism is determined by where it is positioned in a food web. Heterotrophic food web Heterotroph examples You are surrounded by examples of hete...

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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Heterotrophs meaning Heterotrophs are living things that cannot produce their own food through carbon fixation and must therefore obtain nutrition from other sources of organic carbon, primarily plant or animal matter. Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain energy and nutrients from the consumption of other plants or hetero, which means “ other,” and trophe, which means “ nourishment.” Heterotrophs live on the second and third levels of a which is a series of organisms that provide energy and nutrients to other organisms). Hence, heterotrophs are also called In Heterotrophs examples • • • Fungi • • Photoheterotrophic cyanobacteria • Iron-reducing bacteria The above listed are some examples of heterotrophs and they will be discussed below. This African elephant is an example of a heterotroph. Herbivores Herbivores are examples of heterotrophs because they eat plants ( autotrophs) for their nutritional requirements. Thus, on the food web, they are known as Herbivores include cows, sheep, deer, and other frugivores, such as birds, bats, and monkeys. These animals are also part of the heterotrophic herbivores. In addition, there are also heterotrophic herbivores known as nectarivores that consume plant nectar such as hummingbirds, bees, butterflies, and moths. Carnivores Carnivores are usually predators that eat herbivores. Examples of heterotrophs that are carnivorous i...